http://glottopedia.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Ute+Henning&feedformat=atomGlottopedia - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T00:11:07ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.34.2http://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Frikativ&diff=11053Frikativ2010-07-30T11:08:31Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>Ein '''Frikativ''' ist ein [[Konsonant]] ([[Artikulationsart]]), der durch eine Enge im [[Ansatzrohr]] entsteht. Die Luft, die diese Enge passiert, wird verwirbelt und es bildet sich Friktion. Dadurch entsteht ein Geräusch, der Frikativ.<br />
<br />
Es werden stimmhafte und stimmlose Frikative unterschieden.<br />
<br />
===Beispiele===<br />
[ç], [v], [s], [ð], [f] <br />
<br />
<br />
Deutsch: [ç] in ''ich'' oder [v] in ''wo''<br />
<br />
Englisch: [s] in ''sea'' or [ð] in ''there''<br />
<br />
=== Link ===<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Fricative&lemmacode=760 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Frikativ&diff=11052Frikativ2010-07-30T11:07:58Z<p>Ute Henning: basiert auf dem englischen Artikel</p>
<hr />
<div>Ein '''Frikativ''' ist ein [[Konsonant]] ([[Artikulationsart]]), der durch eine Enge im Mundraum entsteht. Die Luft, die diese Enge passiert, wird verwirbelt und es bildet sich Friktion. Dadurch entsteht ein Geräusch, der Frikativ.<br />
<br />
Es werden stimmhafte und stimmlose Frikative unterschieden.<br />
<br />
===Beispiele===<br />
[ç], [v], [s], [ð], [f] <br />
<br />
<br />
Deutsch: [ç] in ''ich'' oder [v] in ''wo''<br />
<br />
Englisch: [s] in ''sea'' or [ð] in ''there''<br />
<br />
=== Link ===<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Fricative&lemmacode=760 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Schwa_(de)&diff=10699Schwa (de)2010-04-02T14:26:39Z<p>Ute Henning: Created page with '{{stub}}{{cats}} '''Schwa''' ist ein zentraler, ungerundeter und kurzer Vokal. === Links === [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Schwa&lemmacode=202 Utrecht L...'</p>
<hr />
<div>{{stub}}{{cats}}<br />
<br />
'''Schwa''' ist ein zentraler, ungerundeter und kurzer Vokal.<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Schwa&lemmacode=202 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
=== Literatur ===<br />
<br />
* Halle, M. &amp; G. Clements 1983. ''Problem Book in Phonology,'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<br />
<br />
=== andere Sprachen ===<br />
English [[Schwa]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:De]]<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Schwa&diff=10697Schwa2010-04-02T14:23:33Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{stub}}{{cats}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Schwa''' is a vowel often described as a mid central unrounded vowel of brief duration. <br />
<br />
<br />
Phonetic symbol ([[SAMPA]]) is [@].<br />
[[IPA]] symbol is [ə]<br />
<br />
=== Example ===<br />
<br />
the final vowel in ''koper'' 'copper'.<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Schwa&lemmacode=202 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
* Halle, M. &amp; G. Clements 1983. ''Problem Book in Phonology,'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
<br />
German [[Schwa (de)|Schwa]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Konsonant&diff=10696Konsonant2010-04-02T14:22:37Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>Im Gegensatz zu [[Vokal|Vokalen]] ist bei der Artikulation von '''Konsonanten''' im [[Ansatzrohr]] ein Hindernis. Dieses kann durch verschiedene Organe gebildet werden, wobei die Zunge eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Sind die Lippen beteiligt, spricht man beispielsweise von (bi-)[[labial]]en Konsonanten.<br />
<br />
{{wb}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
{{stub}}{{cats}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Vowel&diff=10695Vowel2010-04-02T14:20:29Z<p>Ute Henning: Undo revision 10694 by Ute Henning (Talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>In [[phonetics]]/[[phonology]], a '''vowel''' is a [[speech sound]] in whose articulation the oral part of the [[breath channel]] is not constricted enough to cause audible friction.<br />
<br />
===Term properties===<br />
A relational adjective from ''vowel'' that is occasionally used is ''vocalic''.<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
Speech sounds with audible constriction are called [[consonant]]s; sounds intermediate between vowels and consonants are called [[semi-vowel]]s (not "semi-consonants").<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
The word goes back to French ''voyelle'', from Latin ''(littera) vocalis'' 'voice letter' (from ''vox'' 'voice').<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
French [[voyelle]] <br />
German [[Vokal]]<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Vowel&lemmacode=122 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}{{cats}}{{format}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Vowel&diff=10694Vowel2010-04-02T14:19:58Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>In [[phonetics]]/[[phonology]], a '''vowel''' is a [[speech sound]] in whose articulation the oral part of the [[breath channel]] is not constricted enough to cause audible friction.<br />
<br />
===Term properties===<br />
A relational adjective from ''vowel'' that is occasionally used is ''vocalic''.<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
Speech sounds with audible constriction are called [[consonant]]s; sounds intermediate between vowels and consonants are called [[semi-vowel]]s (not "semi-consonants").<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
The word goes back to French ''voyelle'', from Latin ''(littera) vocalis'' 'voice letter' (from ''vox'' 'voice').<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
French [[voyelle]]<br />
<br />
German [[Vokal]]<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Vowel&lemmacode=122 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}{{cats}}{{format}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Vowel&diff=10693Vowel2010-04-02T14:19:26Z<p>Ute Henning: /* Other languages */</p>
<hr />
<div>In [[phonetics]]/[[phonology]], a '''vowel''' is a [[speech sound]] in whose articulation the oral part of the [[breath channel]] is not constricted enough to cause audible friction.<br />
<br />
===Term properties===<br />
A relational adjective from ''vowel'' that is occasionally used is ''vocalic''.<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
Speech sounds with audible constriction are called [[consonant]]s; sounds intermediate between vowels and consonants are called [[semi-vowel]]s (not "semi-consonants").<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
The word goes back to French ''voyelle'', from Latin ''(littera) vocalis'' 'voice letter' (from ''vox'' 'voice').<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
French [[voyelle]] <br />
German [[Vokal]]<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Vowel&lemmacode=122 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}{{cats}}{{format}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Schwa&diff=10690Schwa2010-04-02T14:08:27Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{stub}}{{cats}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Schwa''' is a vowel often described as a mid central unrounded vowel of brief duration. <br />
<br />
<br />
Phonetic symbol ([[SAMPA]]) is [@].<br />
[[IPA]] symbol is [ə]<br />
<br />
=== Example ===<br />
<br />
the final vowel in ''koper'' 'copper'.<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Schwa&lemmacode=202 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
* Halle, M. &amp; G. Clements 1983. ''Problem Book in Phonology,'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<br />
<br />
=== Other languages ===<br />
<br />
German [[Schwa (German)|Schwa]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and Phonology]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Interlanguage&diff=10311Interlanguage2009-10-09T13:51:40Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the field of [[second language acquisition]], the term '''interlanguage''' refers to a learner's variety that conforms neither fully to the rules of the [[target language]] (the language the learner is aiming to acquire) nor to the rules of the learner's [[native language]].<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
This term is closely associated with Larry Selinker's theory of second language acquisition (e.g. Selinker 1972, 1992).<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
The term was coined by Selinker (1972) and picked up quickly by other researchers (e.g. Richards 1972, Schumann 1974).<br />
<br />
===Synonyms===<br />
approximative system, transitional competence, language learner language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Richards, Jack C. 1972. "Social factors, interlanguage, and language learning." ''Language Learning'' 22:159-188.<br />
*Schumann, John H. 1974. "The implications of interlanguage, pidginization and creolization for the study of adult second language acquisition." ''TESOL Quarterly'' 8:145-152.<br />
*Selinker, Larry. 1972. "Interlanguage." ''IRAL (International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching)'' 10:209-231.<br />
*Selinker, Larry. 1992. ''Rediscovering interlanguage.'' London: Longman.<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]] <br />
[[Category:Language acquisition]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Interlanguage&diff=10310Interlanguage2009-10-09T13:51:22Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the field of [[second language acquisition]], the term '''interlanguage''' refers to a learner's variety that conforms neither fully to the rules of the [[target language]] (the language the learner is aiming to acquire) nor to the rules of the learner's [[native language]].<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
This term is closely associated with Larry Selinker's theory of second language acquisition (e.g. Selinker 1972, 1992).<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
The term was coined by Selinker (1972) and picked up quickly by other researchers (e.g. Richards 1972, Schumann 1974).<br />
<br />
===Synonyms===<br />
approximative system<br />
transitional competence<br />
language learner language<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Richards, Jack C. 1972. "Social factors, interlanguage, and language learning." ''Language Learning'' 22:159-188.<br />
*Schumann, John H. 1974. "The implications of interlanguage, pidginization and creolization for the study of adult second language acquisition." ''TESOL Quarterly'' 8:145-152.<br />
*Selinker, Larry. 1972. "Interlanguage." ''IRAL (International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching)'' 10:209-231.<br />
*Selinker, Larry. 1992. ''Rediscovering interlanguage.'' London: Longman.<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]] <br />
[[Category:Language acquisition]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Consonant&diff=10274Consonant2009-09-22T13:32:18Z<p>Ute Henning: added "nasals"</p>
<hr />
<div>A '''consonant''' is a [[speech sound]] that is produced by obstructing the flow of air through the [[oral cavity]] in some way. [[Segment]]al speech sounds that are not consonants are [[vowel]]s or [[semi-vowel]]s.<br />
<br />
===Subtypes===<br />
(By point of articulation:)<br />
*[[labial]]s<br />
*[[dental]]s<br />
*[[alveolar]]s<br />
*[[alveopalatal]]s<br />
*[[palatal]]s<br />
*[[velar]]s<br />
*[[uvular]]s<br />
*[[pharyngeal]]s<br />
*[[laryngeal]]s<br />
<br />
(By mode of articulation:)<br />
*[[occlusive]]s<br />
*[[stop]]s<br />
*[[fricative]]s<br />
*[[lateral]]s<br />
*[[rhotic]]s<br />
*[[glide]]s<br />
*[[nasal]]s<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
French [[consonne]] German [[Konsonant]] Portuguese [[consoante]] Czech [[souhláska]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Consonant|!]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Stop&diff=10273Stop2009-09-22T13:30:28Z<p>Ute Henning: added "other languages"</p>
<hr />
<div>{{stub}}<br />
<br />
A '''stop''' is a [[manner of articulation]], a [[consonant]] where air is held back when uttering it.<br />
<br />
===Comments===<br />
<br />
In a more precise phonetic terminology, stops also include noncontinuant nasals, like [m], [n], [ɲ], or [ŋ]. The phonologist's stop is the phoneticians '''plosive''' or '''explosive'''.<br />
<br />
===Examples found in English===<br />
[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], and, nonphonemically, [ʔ]<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
German [[Plosiv]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
[[Category:Consonant]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Nasal_(de)&diff=10272Nasal (de)2009-09-22T13:27:46Z<p>Ute Henning: Übersetzung des englischen Artikels (noch nicht komplett); kleine Änderungen</p>
<hr />
<div>Ein ''Nasal'' ist ein Laut, bei dessen Realisierung Luft durch die Nase strömt. In Bezug auf [[Konsonant]]en ist ''Nasal'' eine Artikulationsart.<br />
<br />
Die Kategorie '''Nasal''' trifft auf solche Laute zu, die mit gesenktem [[Velum]] artikuliert werden.<br />
<br />
===Beispiele===<br />
Nasalkonsonanten des Englischen und des Deutschen: [m] [n] [ŋ]<br />
<br />
=== Links ===<br />
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Nasal&lemmacode=486 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
<br />
===Other languages===<br />
Englisch [[nasal]]<br />
<br />
{{dc}}<br />
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]<br />
[[Category:Articulation]]<br />
{{stub}}</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Error_analysis&diff=10231Error analysis2009-09-16T17:13:48Z<p>Ute Henning: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Short Definition==<br />
<br />
Error Analysis is a branch of [[Applied Linguistics]]. It is concerned with the compilation, study and analysis of [[errors]] made by [[second language learners]] and aims at explaining [[second language acquisition]] by these means.<br />
<br />
Closely connected to this discipline is the concept of [[interlanguage]].<br />
<br />
Some researchers distinguish Error Analysis from Transfer Analysis, which compares the learner’s data with the respective first language, whereas Error Analysis compares the learner’s data with the [[target language]] [[norm]] and identifies and explains errors accordingly (James 1998).<br />
<br />
==Development==<br />
<br />
Error Analysis was first used as a means of studying [[second language acquisition]] in the 1960s. Corder’s seminal paper “The Significance of Learner’s Errors” (1967) had shifted researchers’ attention from the teaching perspective to the learning perspective – and therefore also away from [[Contrastive Analysis]], [[behaviorism]] and [[structuralism]] towards [[cognitive psychology]]. This was in line with the turn toward the [[Communicative Approach]] in language teaching.<br />
<br />
Drawing on knowledge of [[first language]] acquisition, Corder posited the notion that the second language learner discovers the [[target language]] by hypothesizing about it and testing his or her hypotheses – more or less like children do. This happens not randomly, but following the learner’s [[built-in syllabus]], he said, so that errors will necessarily be made.<br />
<br />
Corder used the term [[transitional competence]] for what has since become a widely accepted and often used concept: that of [[interlanguage]] (Selinker 1972), the learner’s individual, dynamic approximation of the [[target language]]. Errors, according to this view, indicate that the learner actively learns the target language, for they occur whenever a hypothesis the learner tests does not work. In Error Analysis, the language learning process is thought to be influenced by the learner’s [[first language]], his or her [[interlanguage]] and the [[target language]]. Thus, all of these three language systems have an influence on which errors the learner makes. But the gap between the interlanguage and the target language is considered the most important factor of the three. More importantly, however, the learner makes errors because of the [[learning strategy|learning strategies]] he or she employs to ‘discover’ the target language.<br />
<br />
For all these reasons, inductive error analyses were carried out in order to draw generalizations about errors, interlanguage and, ultimately, second language acquisition. Error Analysis reached its zenith in the 1970s, but soon turned out to be deficient as a research tool. By the late 1970s, it was merely contributing to broader second language acquisition theory and research, as it still does today.<br />
<br />
==Aims==<br />
<br />
The aims of error analyses were to identify types and patterns of [[error|errors]] and to establish error taxonomies. These should then be used to describe [[interlanguage]] and its development, i.e. the learner’s [[internal syllabus]]. Common difficulties in [[second language acquisition]] were to be identified. All this should eventually lead to comprehensive knowledge of the processes of second language acquisition – always assuming with [[Chomsky]] that there is something like a [[language acquisition device]].<br />
<br />
In addition, results should be used to review [[language learning theories]] as well as help to evaluate and improve language teaching.<br />
<br />
==Results==<br />
<br />
The main achievements of Error Analysis are changes of perspective. Firstly, it changed how learners’ errors were viewed. No longer were they “signs of inhibition” (Corder 1967) that needed to be eradicated. Instead, they were regarded as useful “evidence of his strategies of learning” (Corder 1967) and as perfectly natural. Secondly, it widened the perspective on possible causes of errors. Researchers saw that the [[first language]] is not the only – in fact, not even the most important - factor that can lead to errors.<br />
<br />
Common errors for different [[target language|target languages]] were identified and, in search of reasons why those errors were made, they were classified in a new way. Errors were distinguished from [[mistakes]] or [[lapses]], which are [[performance]] errors that are not determined by the [[interlanguage]] but rather by situational factors such as tiredness. Only ‘true’ errors are connected to the state of the interlanguage, or the learner’s [[competence]]. Interlingual errors, a result of interference from the [[native language]], were differentiated from intralingual errors, occuring for example when a target language rule is applied to areas where it is not applicable. Corder also pointed out that an utterance which is seemingly correct but does not mean what the speaker or writer intended it to mean contains, in fact, a covert error.<br />
<br />
Error Analysis also played an important role in the development of the [[Interlanguage Hypothesis]].<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
<br />
Error Analysis has been criticized for a number of problems concerning its practice, all of them connected to the fact that it tries to gather knowledge of language learning processes by examining the learner’s [[output]]. First of all, it has proved difficult to determine whether there is an [[error]] at all, and if so, what exactly constitutes it. The distinction between [[error]] and [[mistake]] cannot easily be made either. Secondly, there is usually cannot more than just one way to classify an error. Thirdly, errors’ causes are difficult to name; there is a multitude of possible causes (e.g. communication strategies, personal factors, external factors) and since there is only the learner’s output that can be examined, found causes are necessarily unreliable. In addition, “error taxonomies often confuse description with explanation” (Johnson & Johnson 1998:112), thus doing little to help learners.<br />
<br />
Other criticism has aimed at the simplistic approach Error Analysis takes toward [[second language acquisition]]. Only looking at incorrect output and ignoring correct output as well as any other aspects of the learning process means leaving out important sources of information to describe the acquisition process. This is connected to the fact that correct output does not necessarily mean that something has been learned – because the learner’s language production varies, among other reasons.<br />
<br />
As a result, there has been much criticism of this kind of research. For example, it has been claimed that what were called ‘universal’ errors (errors that are made by any learner of a given target language, no matter what the first language) might in fact be interference errors (Byram 2004, cited in James 1998).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*Cherrington, Ruth. 2004. Error Analysis. In: Byram, Michael (ed.) ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning''. London/New York: Routledge. 198-200.<br />
*Corder, S.P. 1967. The Significance of Learner’s Errors. In: ''IRAL'' 5/1967. 161-170.<br />
*Ellis, Rod. 2008. ''The Study of Second Language Acquisition'' (2nd edition). Oxford: OUP. 47; 60-65.<br />
*James, Carl. 1998. ''Errors in Language Learning and Use – Exploring Error Analysis''. Essex: Pearson.<br />
*Johnson, Keith & Johnson, Helen (ed.) 1998. ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics – A Handbook for Language Teaching''. Oxford/Malden: Blackwell. 110-114.<br />
<br />
[[Category:En]] <br />
[[Category:Language acquisition]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Error_analysis&diff=10230Error analysis2009-09-16T17:12:35Z<p>Ute Henning: Created page with '==Short Definition== Error Analysis is a branch of Applied Linguistics. It is concerned with the compilation, study and analysis of errors made by [[second language lear...'</p>
<hr />
<div>==Short Definition==<br />
<br />
Error Analysis is a branch of [[Applied Linguistics]]. It is concerned with the compilation, study and analysis of [[errors]] made by [[second language learners]] and aims at explaining [[second language acquisition]] by these means.<br />
<br />
Closely connected to this discipline is the concept of [[interlanguage]].<br />
<br />
Some researchers distinguish Error Analysis from Transfer Analysis, which compares the learner’s data with the respective first language, whereas Error Analysis compares the learner’s data with the [[target language]] [[norm]] and identifies and explains errors accordingly (James 1998).<br />
<br />
==Development==<br />
<br />
Error Analysis was first used as a means of studying [[second language acquisition]] in the 1960s. Corder’s seminal paper “The Significance of Learner’s Errors” (1967) had shifted researchers’ attention from the teaching perspective to the learning perspective – and therefore also away from [[Contrastive Analysis]], [[behaviorism]] and [[structuralism]] towards [[cognitive psychology]]. This was in line with the turn toward the [[Communicative Approach]] in language teaching.<br />
<br />
Drawing on knowledge of [[first language]] acquisition, Corder posited the notion that the second language learner discovers the [[target language]] by hypothesizing about it and testing his or her hypotheses – more or less like children do. This happens not randomly, but following the learner’s [[built-in syllabus]], he said, so that errors will necessarily be made.<br />
<br />
Corder used the term [[transitional competence]] for what has since become a widely accepted and often used concept: that of [[interlanguage]] (Selinker 1972), the learner’s individual, dynamic approximation of the [[target language]]. Errors, according to this view, indicate that the learner actively learns the target language, for they occur whenever a hypothesis the learner tests does not work. In Error Analysis, the language learning process is thought to be influenced by the learner’s [[first language]], his or her [[interlanguage]] and the [[target language]]. Thus, all of these three language systems have an influence on which errors the learner makes. But the gap between the interlanguage and the target language is considered the most important factor of the three. More importantly, however, the learner makes errors because of the [[learning strategy|learning strategies]] he or she employs to ‘discover’ the target language.<br />
<br />
For all these reasons, inductive error analyses were carried out in order to draw generalizations about errors, interlanguage and, ultimately, second language acquisition. Error Analysis reached its zenith in the 1970s, but soon turned out to be deficient as a research tool. By the late 1970s, it was merely contributing to broader second language acquisition theory and research, as it still does today.<br />
<br />
==Aims==<br />
<br />
The aims of error analyses were to identify types and patterns of [[error|errors]] and to establish error taxonomies. These should then be used to describe [[interlanguage]] and its development, i.e. the learner’s [[internal syllabus]]. Common difficulties in [[second language acquisition]] were to be identified. All this should eventually lead to comprehensive knowledge of the processes of second language acquisition – always assuming with [[Chomsky]] that there is something like a [[language acquisition device]].<br />
<br />
In addition, results should be used to review [[language learning theories]] as well as help to evaluate and improve language teaching.<br />
<br />
==Results==<br />
<br />
The main achievements of Error Analysis are changes of perspective. Firstly, it changed how learners’ errors were viewed. No longer were they “signs of inhibition” (Corder 1967) that needed to be eradicated. Instead, they were regarded as useful “evidence of his strategies of learning” (Corder 1967) and as perfectly natural. Secondly, it widened the perspective on possible causes of errors. Researchers saw that the [[first language]] is not the only – in fact, not even the most important - factor that can lead to errors.<br />
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Common errors for different [[target language|target languages]] were identified and, in search of reasons why those errors were made, they were classified in a new way. Errors were distinguished from [[mistakes]] or [[lapses]], which are [[performance]] errors that are not determined by the [[interlanguage]] but rather by situational factors such as tiredness. Only ‘true’ errors are connected to the state of the interlanguage, or the learner’s [[competence]]. Interlingual errors, a result of interference from the [[native language]], were differentiated from intralingual errors, occuring for example when a target language rule is applied to areas where it is not applicable. Corder also pointed out that an utterance which is seemingly correct but does not mean what the speaker or writer intended it to mean contains, in fact, a covert error.<br />
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Error Analysis also played an important role in the development of the [[Interlanguage Hypothesis]].<br />
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==Criticism==<br />
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Error Analysis has been criticized for a number of problems concerning its practice, all of them connected to the fact that it tries to gather knowledge of language learning processes by examining the learner’s [[output]]. First of all, it has proved difficult to determine whether there is an [[error]] at all, and if so, what exactly constitutes it. The distinction between [[error]] and [[mistake]] cannot easily be made either. Secondly, there is usually cannot more than just one way to classify an error. Thirdly, errors’ causes are difficult to name; there is a multitude of possible causes (e.g. communication strategies, personal factors, external factors) and since there is only the learner’s output that can be examined, found causes are necessarily unreliable. In addition, “error taxonomies often confuse description with explanation” (Johnson & Johnson 1998:112), thus doing little to help learners.<br />
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Other criticism has aimed at the simplistic approach Error Analysis takes toward [[second language acquisition]]. Only looking at incorrect output and ignoring correct output as well as any other aspects of the learning process means leaving out important sources of information to describe the acquisition process. This is connected to the fact that correct output does not necessarily mean that something has been learned – because the learner’s language production varies, among other reasons.<br />
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As a result, there has been much criticism of this kind of research. For example, it has been claimed that what were called ‘universal’ errors (errors that are made by any learner of a given target language, no matter what the first language) might in fact be interference errors (Byram 2004, cited in James 1998).<br />
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==References==<br />
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*Cherrington, Ruth. 2004. Error Analysis. In: Byram, Michael (ed.) ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning''. London/New York: Routledge. 198-200.<br />
*Corder, S.P. 1967. The Significance of Learner’s Errors. In: ''IRAL'' 5/1967. 161-170.<br />
*Ellis, Rod. 2008. ''The Study of Second Language Acquisition'' (2nd edition). Oxford: OUP. 47; 60-65.<br />
*James, Carl. 1998. ''Errors in Language Learning and Use – Exploring Error Analysis''. Essex: Pearson.<br />
*Johnson, Keith & Johnson, Helen (ed.) 1998. ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics – A Handbook for Language Teaching''. Oxford/Malden: Blackwell. 110-114.</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Portal:Language_acquisition&diff=10229Portal:Language acquisition2009-09-16T16:32:59Z<p>Ute Henning: Created page with 'This page will become the portal on '''language acquisition'''. If you would like to maintain this portal, please contact the editors. Here is a list of...'</p>
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<div>This page will become the portal on '''language acquisition'''.<br />
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If you would like to maintain this portal, please [[Glottopedia:Contact|contact]] the editors.<br />
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Here is a list of the articles in [[:Category:language acquisition]].<br />
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[[Category:En]]<br />
[[Category:Portal]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=Assimilation_(de)&diff=10109Assimilation (de)2009-08-14T13:32:25Z<p>Ute Henning: Habe den englischen Artikel übersetzt.</p>
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<div>'''Assimilation''' bezeichnet einen Prozess, bei dem sich ein [[Segment]] an ein (benachbartes) Segment phonetisch angleicht.<br />
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=== Beispiel ===<br />
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Im Englischen wird der alveolare [[Nasalkonsonant]] des [[Präfix|Präfixes]] /in-/ zu [l] in "illegal" (totale Assimilation) und zu [m] in "input" (partielle Assimilation), wobei die Veränderung im zweiten Beispiel darin besteht, dass das [[Artikulationsorgan]] und der [[Artikulationsort]] durch den Einfluss des folgenden labialen Segments [p] von apiko-alveolar zu bilabial wechselt. Assimilation zwischen [[Vokal|Vokalen]] wird üblicherweise als [[Vokalharmonie]] bezeichnet.<br />
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=== Typen ===<br />
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Assimilationsveränderungen lassen sich wie folgt klassifizieren:<br />
*[[partielle vs. totale Assimilation]]<br />
*[[progressive vs. regressive Assimilation]]<br />
*[[Kontaktassimilation vs. Fernassimilation]]<br />
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=== Andere Sprachen ===<br />
Englisch [[Assimilation]]<br />
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== References ==<br />
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* Campbell, Lyle & Mauricio J. Mixco. 2007. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.<br />
* Crowley, Terry. 1997. An introduction to historical linguistics 3rd ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press.<br />
* Kiparsky, Paul. 2003. The phonological basis of sound change. In Handbook of historical linguistics, ed. by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda, 313–342. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.<br />
* McMahon, April M.S. 1994. Understanding language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <br />
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=== Links ===<br />
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* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Assimilation&lemmacode=1046 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]<br />
* [http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/~audiufon/data/klankaanpassing.html Audiodemonstration]<br /><br />
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[[Category: Diachrony]]<br />
[[Category: Phonetics and phonology]]</div>Ute Henninghttp://glottopedia.org/index.php?title=User:Ute_Henning&diff=10108User:Ute Henning2009-08-13T18:14:58Z<p>Ute Henning: Created page with 'Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Student of English, German and Phonetics.'</p>
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<div>Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena<br />
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Student of English, German and Phonetics.</div>Ute Henning