Hadza - Revision history

Unknown user: /* Phonology */

2021-01-05T08:14:40Z

Phonology

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	=== Phonology ===		=== Phonology ===
	Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and~~, due to metathesis,~~ in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.		Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and in a few Cushitic loans, some due to metathesis and some unexplained), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

	==== Stress and tone ====		==== Stress and tone ====

Unknown user: /* Name */

2021-01-05T04:11:13Z

Name

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	"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.		"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

	"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.		"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass' and its derivative ''kitindiga'', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

	=== Orthography ===		=== Orthography ===

Unknown user: /* Location and Speakers */

2021-01-05T04:07:37Z

Location and Speakers

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	There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.		There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

	There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.		There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include Bantu [[Isanzu]] in the south, Bantu [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree Nilotic [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and Cushitic [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

	As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.		As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

Unknown user: /* Dialects */

2021-01-05T03:48:33Z

Dialects

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	=== Dialects ===		=== Dialects ===
	There ~~do not appear to be any~~ dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.		There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.

	=== Name ===		=== Name ===

Unknown user: /* Location and Speakers */

2021-01-05T03:45:49Z

Location and Speakers

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	Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.		Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

	There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it ~~has~~ no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.		There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

	There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.		There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

Unknown user: /* Phonotactics */

2021-01-05T03:44:29Z

Phonotactics

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	Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)		Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

	When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.		When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law\|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

	===Swadesh lists===		===Swadesh lists===

Unknown user: /* Phonotactics */

2021-01-05T03:43:05Z

Phonotactics

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	All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.		All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

	Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks.		Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

	When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.		When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

	===Swadesh lists===		===Swadesh lists===

Unknown user: /* Consonants */

2021-01-05T03:37:51Z

Consonants

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	The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].		The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

	/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).		/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

	[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.		[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

Unknown user: /* Phonology */

2021-01-05T03:33:40Z

Phonology

Show changes

Unknown user: /* Orthography */

2020-10-20T22:44:16Z

Orthography

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:44, 20 October 2020
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	Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.		Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

	The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, ~~for~~ e.g. ⟨aye⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ /aʔe/.		The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

	=== Phonology ===		=== Phonology ===